Geometry | Rod Carvalho

Posts Tagged ‘Geometry’

Geometry with POV-Ray

July 28, 2009

If you would like to use POV-Ray to visualize 3-dimensional geometrical objects, I highly recommend Friedrich A. Lohmueller‘s beautiful tutorial on Analytical Geometry with POV-Ray. Other POV-Ray tutorials by Friedrich A. Lohmueller can be found here.

[ image courtesy of Friedrich A. Lohmueller ]

In my humble opinion, this is how Analytical Geometry should be taught. Descartes had no access to 3-d graphics. We do. Why not take advantage of the technology?

Tags:Art, Computer Graphics, Friedrich A. Lohmueller, Geometry, Mathematical Art, POV-Ray
Posted in Art, Geometry | Leave a Comment »

Distance between two lines

December 28, 2008

Suppose we are given two lines in $\mathbb{R}^n$ , $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ . Line $\mathcal{L}_1$ passes through the point $x_0 \in \mathbb{R}^n$ and its direction is given by vector $u \in \mathbb{R}^n \setminus \{0_n\}$

$\mathcal{L}_1 = \left\{ x_0 + \lambda u \mid \lambda \in \mathbb{R} \right\}$ .

Line $\mathcal{L}_2$ passes through the point $y_0 \in \mathbb{R}^n$ and its direction is given by vector $v \in \mathbb{R}^n \setminus \{0_n\}$

$\mathcal{L}_2 = \left\{ y_0 + \gamma v \mid \gamma \in \mathbb{R} \right\}$ .

What is the distance between lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ ?

__________

Lines as functions

Let vector-valued functions $x : \mathbb{R} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$ and $y : \mathbb{R} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$ be defined as

$x(\lambda) = x_0 + \lambda u, \quad{} y(\gamma) = y_0 + \gamma v$ .

Lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ are thus the images of set $\mathbb{R}$ under functions $x : \mathbb{R} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$ and $y : \mathbb{R} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$ , respectively

$\mathcal{L}_1 = \left\{ x(\lambda) \mid \lambda \in \mathbb{R} \right\}, \quad{} \mathcal{L}_2 = \left\{ y(\gamma) \mid \gamma \in \mathbb{R} \right\}$ .

Function $x: \mathbb{R} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$ maps each $\lambda \in \mathbb{R}$ into point $x(\lambda) \in \mathcal{L}_1$ . Therefore, choosing a particular value of $\lambda$ corresponds to choosing a point on line $\mathcal{L}_1$ , and vice versa (because function $x$ is injective). Thus, each point on the line $\mathcal{L}_1$ can be unambiguously specified by a value of $\lambda$ . Similarly, following the same line of thought, each point on the line $\mathcal{L}_2$ can be unambiguously specified by a value of $\gamma$ .

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Distance between two points

In order to compute the distance between lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ , we first need to know how to compute the distance between two points in $\mathbb{R}^n$ , i.e., we need to choose a metric on $\mathbb{R}^n$ . For the sake of simplicity, we will use the Euclidean metric, i.e., we will use the 2-norm to measure lengths and distances. In other words, we will be working in normed vector space $(\mathbb{R}^n, \| \cdot \|_2)$ .

Let us fix parameters $\lambda$ and $\gamma$ , i.e., $\lambda = \bar{\lambda}$ and $\gamma = \bar{\gamma}$ , and compute the distance between fixed points $x(\bar{\lambda})$ and $y(\bar{\gamma})$

$\textbf{dist} ( x(\bar{\lambda}), y(\bar{\gamma}) ) = \| x( \bar{\lambda} ) - y(\bar{\gamma} )\|_2$ .

Pictorially, we have that $\textbf{dist} ( x(\bar{\lambda}), y(\bar{\gamma}) )$ is the length of the line segment connecting fixed points $x(\bar{\lambda})$ and $y(\bar{\gamma})$

To each pair of parameters $(\lambda, \gamma)$ , it is assigned a non-negative scalar $\textbf{dist} ( x(\lambda), y(\gamma) )$

$(\lambda, \gamma) \mapsto ( x(\lambda), y(\gamma) ) \mapsto \textbf{dist} ( x(\lambda), y(\gamma) )$ .

__________

Distance between a point and a line

Suppose now that we vary $\gamma$ , while $\lambda$ remains fixed, $\lambda = \bar{\lambda}$ . As we vary $\gamma$ , we travel along line $\mathcal{L}_2$ and hence the distance between free point $y(\gamma) \in \mathcal{L}_2$ and fixed point $x(\bar{\lambda}) \in \mathcal{L}_1$ is given by

$\textbf{dist} (x(\bar{\lambda}), y(\gamma)) = \| x(\bar{\lambda}) - y(\gamma)\|_2$ .

Since $\gamma$ is now free, $\textbf{dist} (x(\bar{\lambda}), y(\gamma))$ is a function of $\gamma$ .

For example, let us pick three distinct values for $\gamma$ , say $\gamma_1, \gamma_2, \gamma_3$ . The image below depicts the line segments connecting fixed point $x(\bar{\lambda}) \in \mathcal{L}_1$ and points $y(\gamma_1), y(\gamma_2), y(\gamma_3) \in \mathcal{L}_2$ . The length of these line segments gives us the distance between the fixed point and each of the three points on line $\mathcal{L}_2$ .

The distance between fixed point $x(\bar{\lambda}) \in \mathcal{L}_1$ and line $\mathcal{L}_2$ is thus

$\textbf{dist} (x(\bar{\lambda}), \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{\gamma \in \mathbb{R}} \| x(\bar{\lambda}) - y(\gamma) \|_2$ .

We have an optimization problem: we would like to find the value of parameter $\gamma \in \mathbb{R}$ which minimizes function $\textbf{dist} (x(\bar{\lambda}), y(\gamma))$ . This minimizer is (see appendix A)

$\gamma^* = \displaystyle \arg \min_{\gamma \in \mathbb{R}} \| x(\bar{\lambda}) - y(\gamma) \|_2 \Rightarrow \gamma^* = \displaystyle \frac{v^T ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 )}{ v^T v}$ .

Evaluating function $y$ at $\gamma^*$ we obtain $y( \gamma^*)$ , the point on line $\mathcal{L}_2$ that is closest to fixed point $x(\bar{\lambda}) \in \mathcal{L}_1$

$y( \gamma^*) = \displaystyle y_0 + P_v ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 )$ ,

where

$P_v = \displaystyle \frac{v v^T}{v^T v}$

is a symmetric, idempotent ( $P_v^2 = P_v$ ) projection matrix, and $P_v ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 )$ is the orthogonal projection of vector $x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0$ onto vector $v$ . It can be shown that vectors $x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*)$ and $v$ are orthogonal (see appendix B).

For example, let us consider the $n=3$ case: we have two lines in $\mathbb{R}^3$ , $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ , where $\mathcal{L}_2$ lies on plane $\mathcal{P}$ . Pictorially, we have

We would like to find the point on line $\mathcal{L}_2$ that is closest to fixed point $x(\bar{\lambda}) \in \mathcal{L}_1$ . Projecting vector $x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0$ orthogonally onto vector $v$ , we obtain

The image above illustrates rather nicely that vectors $x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*)$ and $v$ are orthogonal (see appendix B). The distance between fixed point $x(\bar{\lambda})$ and line $\mathcal{L}_2$ is

$\textbf{dist} (x(\bar{\lambda}), \mathcal{L}_2) = \| x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*) \|_2$ ,

where $y( \gamma^*) = \displaystyle y_0 + P_v ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 )$ . Please note that plane $\mathcal{P}$ serves no purpose other than to make it easier to visualize in 3-d (plane $\mathcal{P}$ gives an impression of depth). In other words, plane $\mathcal{P}$ has some “artistic value”, but no “mathematical value”.

__________

Distance between two lines

Let us now vary both $\lambda$ and $\gamma$ . As we vary $\lambda$ and $\gamma$ , we travel along lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ , respectively. Since both parameters are free, the distance between free points $x(\lambda) \in \mathcal{L}_1$ and $y(\gamma) \in \mathcal{L}_2$ is

$\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), y(\gamma)) = \| x(\lambda) - y(\gamma) \|_2$ ,

which is a function of both $\lambda$ and $\gamma$ . The distance between lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ is thus

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{(\lambda, \gamma) \in \mathbb{R}^2} \| x(\lambda) - y(\gamma) \|_2$ .

The original problem of computing the distance between two lines has thus been cast as an optimization problem: we would like to find the pair $(\lambda, \gamma) \in \mathbb{R}^2$ which minimizes $\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), y(\gamma))$ . Once we have found the pair of minimizers $(\lambda^*, \gamma^*)$ , the distance between $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ is

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \| x(\lambda^*) - y(\gamma^*) \|_2$ .

The pair $(\lambda^*, \gamma^*)$ is not necessarily unique. For example, if the lines are parallel to each other, then there are infinitely many pairs of minimizers $(\lambda^*, \gamma^*)$ .

Trying to find the pair $(\lambda, \gamma) \in \mathbb{R}^2$ which minimizes $\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), y(\gamma))$ is a one-stage 2-dimensional optimization problem. However, we can solve this optimization problem in two stages, where at each stage we must solve a 1-dimensional optimization problem

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{\lambda \in \mathbb{R}} \min_{\gamma \in \mathbb{R}} \| x(\lambda) - y(\gamma) \|_2$ .

Note that

$\displaystyle \min_{\gamma \in \mathbb{R}} \| x(\lambda) - y(\gamma) \|_2 = \textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), \mathcal{L}_2)$

is the distance between point $x(\lambda)$ and line $\mathcal{L}_2$ , and thus

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{\lambda \in \mathbb{R}} \textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), \mathcal{L}_2)$ .

We already know how to compute the distance between a point on line $\mathcal{L}_1$ and line $\mathcal{L}_2$ : given a value of $\lambda$ , the choice of $\gamma$ which minimizes $\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), y(\gamma))$ is $\gamma = \Gamma (\lambda)$ , where function $\Gamma : \mathbb{R} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is defined as (see appendix A)

$\Gamma (\lambda) = \displaystyle \frac{v^T ( x(\lambda) - y_0 )}{ v^T v}$ ,

and the point on line $\mathcal{L}_2$ which is closest to $x(\lambda)$ is

$y(\Gamma (\lambda)) = y_0 + P_v \left( x(\lambda) - y_0 \right)$ .

Therefore, for a given value of $\lambda$ , we have that the distance between $x(\lambda)$ and line $\mathcal{L}_2$ is

$\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), \mathcal{L}_2) = \textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), y(\Gamma(\lambda))) = \| x(\lambda) - y( \Gamma (\lambda)) \|_2$ .

Note that $\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), \mathcal{L}_2)$ is a function of $\lambda$ only, as we have already optimized function $\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), y(\gamma))$ for $\gamma$ . Finally, the distance between lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ can be found by solving a 1-dimensional optimization problem in $\lambda$

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{\lambda \in \mathbb{R}} \|x(\lambda) - y( \Gamma (\lambda) )\|_2$ .

Once we have found the $\lambda^*$ which minimizes the distance $\| x(\lambda) - y( \Gamma (\lambda)) \|_2$ , the distance between lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ is simply

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \| x(\lambda^*) - y( \Gamma (\lambda^*)) \|_2$ .

Note that:

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = 0$ : lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ do intersect.

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) > 0$ : lines $\mathcal{L}_1$ and $\mathcal{L}_2$ do not intersect.

The value of $\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2)$ can be written in terms of points $x_0, y_0$ and direction vectors $u, v$ , as I will show on some future posts.

__________

The shortest distance game

It might seem a bit obscure that the one-stage 2-dimensional optimization problem

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{(\lambda, \gamma) \in \mathbb{R}^2} \| x(\lambda) - y(\gamma) \|_2$

is equivalent to a two-stage optimization problem where at each stage one must solve a 1-dimensional optimization problem

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{\lambda \in \mathbb{R}} \min_{\gamma \in \mathbb{R}} \| x(\lambda) - y(\gamma) \|_2$ .

Personally, I like to look at this from a game-theoretic viewpoint. Let us play a sequential game! We shall call the shortest distance game. I play first, then you play:

I choose a value for $\lambda \in \mathbb{R}$ , I tell you what $\lambda$ I chose.
You then choose $\gamma = \Gamma (\lambda)$ such that $\textbf{dist} (x(\lambda), y(\gamma))$ is minimized.

Note that you are required to play optimally, i.e., to minimize distance. Hence you have no freedom in the choice of $\gamma$ : you choose $\gamma$ as a response to my choice of $\lambda$ . Your choice is now coupled to mine, and thus, we are left with only one degree of freedom, the choice of $\lambda$ . I now choose the value of $\lambda$ which minimizes $\| x(\lambda) - y( \Gamma (\lambda)) \|_2$

$\textbf{dist} (\mathcal{L}_1, \mathcal{L}_2) = \displaystyle \min_{\lambda \in \mathbb{R}} \| x(\lambda) - y( \Gamma (\lambda)) \|_2$ .

Fortunately, I can use calculus to find the minimizer $\lambda^*$ . Trying all values in $\mathbb{R}$ for parameter $\lambda$ would be rather tedious ;-)

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Appendix A

Note that the value of parameter $\gamma$ which minimizes the distance $\| x(\bar{\lambda}) - y(\gamma) \|_2$ is the same that minimizes the squared distance $\| x(\bar{\lambda}) - y(\gamma) \|_2^2$ . Finding the minimizer of the squared norm is much easier, thus we introduce a cost function $C : \mathbb{R} \rightarrow [0, \infty)$ defined as

$C(\gamma) = \displaystyle \frac{1}{2} \| x(\bar{\lambda}) - y(\gamma) \|_2^2$ .

Differentiating with respect to $\gamma$ , we obtain

$\begin{array}{rl} \displaystyle \frac{d C}{d \gamma} (\gamma) &= \displaystyle ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y(\gamma) )^T (- v)\\ &= \displaystyle v^T ( y(\gamma) - x(\bar{\lambda}) ) \\ &= \displaystyle v^T \left( \gamma v - ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 ) \right) \\ &=\displaystyle \|v\|_2^2 \gamma - v^T ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 ).\\ \end{array}$

The first derivative of $C(\cdot)$ must vanish at extrema. From the geometry of the problem, we know that there are no maxima (note that the cost function is unbounded above). Therefore we can find minima by checking the first derivative alone, without having to check the second derivative. We have

$\displaystyle \frac{d C}{d \gamma} (\gamma^*) = 0 \Rightarrow \displaystyle \|v\|_2^2 \gamma^* - v^T ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 ) = 0$ ,

and since $v \neq 0_n$ , the minimizer is

$\gamma^* = \displaystyle \frac{v^T ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 )}{ v^T v}$ .

Note that this minimizer depends on the value of fixed parameter $\bar{\lambda}$ .

__________

Appendix B

We would like to show that vectors $x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*)$ and $v$ are orthogonal. Recall that $y( \gamma^*) = \displaystyle y_0 + P_v ( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0 )$ , and thus

$\displaystyle x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*) = ( I_n - P_v) \left(x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0\right)$ .

Multiplying both sides on the left by $P_v$ , we obtain

$\displaystyle P_v \left(x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*)\right) = P_v \left( I_n - P_v\right) \left(x(\bar{\lambda}) - y_0\right)$

and since $P_v (I_n - P_v) = P_v - P_v^2 = O_{n \times n}$ (recall that $P_v^2 = P_v$ ), then we finally have

$P_v \left( x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*) \right) = 0_n$ ,

which means that vectors $x(\bar{\lambda}) - y( \gamma^*)$ and $v$ are orthogonal.

__________

About Lines and Distance of a Point to a Line (by Dan Sunday)

Distance between Lines and Segments with their Closest Point of Approach (by Dan Sunday)

Tags:Game Theory, Geometry, Optimization
Posted in Geometry, Optimization | 1 Comment »

Outside In

January 17, 2008

Here’s an excellent video on how to turn a sphere inside out. The animation is about 20 minutes long, but well worth watching.

Hat tip: Nuclear Phynance

Possibly related:

Möbius transformations revealed

Tags:Geometry, Mathematical Art, Mathematics, Topology
Posted in Art, Mathematics | 1 Comment »

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Rod Carvalho

Posts Tagged ‘Geometry’

Geometry with POV-Ray

Distance between two lines

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Rod Carvalho

Posts Tagged ‘Geometry’

Geometry with POV-Ray

Distance between two lines

Outside In

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Recent Posts

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Haskell

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